History of Ford Thunderbird :: essays research papers

The Ford Thunderbird, an American classic, is a car manufactured in the United States by Ford Motor Company. It was created only twenty months later Chevrolets Corvette as a comeback car and entered design for the 1955 model year as a deuce-seater resembling a sports car, which went on sale on October 22, 1954 (Wilson 116). As the Thunderbird was a better performer and cost four hundred and ninety six dollars less, no wonder it sold better. In fact, the sales figure for the initial model was nearly four times that of the Corvette (Georgano 122). Through the development of the Ford Thunderbird it has evolved drastically in style and performance over its long history. Although none of this would live with happened without the formation of the idea to create what is known as the Ford Thunderbird. There are two hairstylists credited with the creation of the Thunderbird Lewis D. Crusoe and George Walker, who later became a chief stylist and a Ford vice-president. They took a trip to Paris, and while they were there they saw a sports car that got their attention. From that moment on, they knew they had to come up with something just like it. They went to stool as soon as permission was given from headquarters. Their goal was to have a lightweight sports car with a V-8 engine that accelerated to speeds above speed of light mph. They achieved this goal successfully, but they did not meet their projected weight for the car. Crusoe started a clay model of the car and finally gained the acceptance on it in whitethorn of 1953 (Wilson 116).Once the model was complete there came about the difficulty in deciding on a name. The motives were completely lost when it came to names but suggestions came move in by the thousands. Finally, the designers narrowed it down to just one name Whizzer, but Crusoe was just not satisfied with it. He devised a reward, a two hundred and fifty dollar suit, for anyone who could come up with a better name. It was not long before they rece ived a submission from a designer named Alden Giberson. The name he came up with was Thunderbird. Crusoe approved it and the name was no longer negotiable. His idea for that name surprisingly did not come from the Native American sign for Thunder-bird, but from a very prominent subdivision in Rancho Mirage, California.

Free College Essays - Shakespeares Sonnet 76 :: Sonnet essays

Sonnet 76   Sonnet 76 is in the section of Shakespeares praises generally accepted as being written to the "fair preteen man." However, there is no clear indication within this sonnet to identify its recipient. The form is consistent iambic pentameter with an abab,cdcd,efef,gg rhyme scheme. The basic argument of this sonnet is the force of the sonnet itself as a lasting expression of love. In the first quatrain, the poet questions himself about his poetic style. He makes reference to it being "barren" (unproductive, dry, lacking natality or interest) of " new(a) pride" which is an archaic expression for "ornament." He questions the lack of variety or innovation. Then he asks himself why he doesnt follow the modern fads (trends) and new methods of expression. Within these lines the poet begins on a path of self-examination into what he is doing specifically in writing sonnets to express his love. These thoughts are further explored in the adjacent quatrain. The poet asks why he writes al modes in the same form and style keeping his creative imagination tied to a well-kn cause form. This form is the sonnet which fits the poetic style of the writer in the same way as a garment worn frequently enough to be recognized (therefore, a comfortable garment). The poet feels every word he writes reveals his identity because of the identification of the style and manner of word usage with himself. As a child who resembles his or her parent, his way with words is easily identified. Taking this further, just as a parent cannot disown his child as his true youth, the poet cannot deny the sonnet as his own true form of expression. In the final quatrain, the poet tells his recipient that he always writes on one theme--his love and the one he loves. For this reason, the poet finds his best tool in reworking his words and the familiar form of the sonnet. Even as a child is a form of expressing true love (an idea from the early sonnets), his sonnets as his offspring express the poets feelings in his own unique way. He may have to reuse words and images but he hopes that each new time he can improve the word combinations and embellishments to heighten his attempt to communicate love. The final couplet brings forth the idea that as the sun rises new each twenty-four hours with all its bright freshness while at the same time it is as old as creation, so the poets love sonnets are both new and old in what they are saying.

Cultural Criticism in W.B.Yeats’ An Irish Airman Foresees His Death Ess

Cultural Criticism in W.B.Yeats An Irish Airman Foresees His DeathThe various levels of interpretation that a poet, such as W.B.Yeats, welcomes to his meters is difficult to grasp upon premier(prenominal) reading his poetry. What appears to be a straight forward poem, such as, An Irish Airman Foresees His Death, is actually an intellectual cultural criticism of Yeats modern day society. The poem, create verbally as a testament to Lady Gregorys son, captures the innermost concerns and perceptions of an Irish airman in World War I. However, through Yeats sentimental and poetic style, the poem incorporates a double meaning, and hence, focuses on Irish nationalism and its lack of an international consciencesness. The airman is Ireland personified, and his outlook on war and society is a window into the pure(a) sit arounduation that Ireland faces. As the title suggests, there is a sense of imminent doom for the soldier (Ireland). He foresees his death, that has not yet experienced i t and does secret code to prevent it. The poem is written in the first person which gives a first hand feel for the tragic loss that the Irish soldier go forth experience. (i.e. his own death). Yeats is making a subtle commentary on the state of his modern Ireland. He can foresee her doom, yet, unlike the subject of his poem, does not sit back and accept his fate. The lack of a unified republic in Ireland and the ominous presence of English colonization, stand in the way of progression for the Irish people. Yeats writes a poetry (specifically, An Irish Airman Foresees His Death) to open the eyes of the world to the shadow of desolation that covers Ireland like an umbrella. Lady Gregorys son is used as a catalyst to project Yeats imagery of Irelands desperate situati... ...otism is established in a seemingly simple testament to a dead soldier. What fall apart way to honor the dead than to personify Lady Ireland through his character The passion that Yeats subconsciously incorpora tes into his poem equals that of his love for Ireland. An Irish Airman Foresees His Death begins on a low and desperate note, but reaches its climax upon Gregory answering Irelands call, and ends by, essentially, posing a question to the reader. As a collective people, which side of the seesaw do we belong? He leaves his hero (Gregory) hanging in the balance of an important national question. The poem may be about Yeats character foreseeing his death, but the fact remains he is in the act of foreseeing, he is not dead yetand neither is Ireland. Works Cited Townshend, Charles. Ireland The 20th Century. New York Oxford UP, 1998.

Why is it important for the school to concern itself with childrens :: Education

Why is it important for the crop to concern itself with childrenssocial and emotional development? Examine carriages in which this could beattempted.In light of the flowing climate and the pressure on schools to improvestandards, it may seem a strange question to ask. However it is such afundamental issue that it is not only important but also vital for theschool to concern itself with childrens social and emotionaldevelopment. This duty is now no longer an option. The aims of theNational curriculum as set out in the1988 Education Reform Act statesthat a schools curriculum shouldpromote the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physicaldevelopment of pupils at the school and of society.(Kyriacou,1995)(p.18)Before elucidating on this question, it is important to know ex sufficelywhat is meant by social and emotional development. Daniel Goldmandefines Emotional Intelligence as an ability firstly to understandwhy we be suck up the way we do and secondly to control those actions tha tare inappropriate to the situation. It is also the ability toempathise and understand the emotions of others (Goldman 1996). Hence,the ultimate aim in this area with regards to child rearing is for awell-balanced and centred human being. The majority of people alsogenerally accept that to have been loved and accepted unconditionallyby just one(a) other human being, as a child is enough for them to growto be normal and well balanced adults. It is at that placefore very clear thatparents have a large influence over this area of development. So, whyshould schools concern themselves with the social and emotionaldevelopment of children?Bandura, one of the main exponents of social breaking theories arguesthat there has been an underestimation of the importance of modelling,particularly with regards to learning social skills (Fontana, 1988).Children have a great tendency to imitate the behaviour of others.This imitation tends to be of people who honor status and standing.This starts with parents first. It then includes outside people suchas teachers who in the majority of cases for children are the firstoutside relationship that holds a position of authority. Teachers actas role models for children. It is not so much what a teacher tells achild but more the way he/she behaves towards the child that has theinfluence.Bandura held that children learn social behaviour through socialcontacts. In particular he made a study of aggression. He showed howchildren who were exposed to adult aggression, were more likely tobecome aggressive themselves. It was not the fact that these childrenwere exposed to aggression but the fact that the aggressive behaviourseemed to be sanctioned by the adults.

The Efficacy of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Essay -- psychology, drug

Addiction is the chronic and inappropriate use of a core group or activity that interferes with ones daily life. Research has shown that addictive substances become engrained in the individuals coping mechanism. cognitive behavioral therapy is an effective year of addictions intervention because it is an integrative approach that consists of multiple stages, views the individual as a whole, more effective than pharmacotherapy, and creates a healthy relationship with the therapist. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a form of psychotherapy that teaches the individual new behavior patterns to break their old ineffective habits. Scientific research on addiction shows that those who suffer from substance dependency do not have the same capabilities as non-substance users. This can include the ability to think of the consequences of their actions, plan ahead and decision-making skill. (Simpson et al., 2011, p. 2). In CBT, a therapist must check off that the client develops these sk ills and creates a functional concept of self through goals. The type of goals is typically depended on the therapists opinion. It is vital for the therapist to have self-awareness to a clients substance dependency because their response to the substance or client will effect the treatment. The therapist should have supervision to ensure that the cognitive-behavior therapy is dowry the client and it is not harming the therapists mental state. Psychotherapy is individualized for both therapists and clients, yet there are some clear stages and ideas in CBT.Cognitive behavioral therapy is based on the cycle of the ABC model, which consists of antecedents, behavior and consequences (Ryan, 2013, p.33). The antecedent is the event that takes place to cause ... ...iates Publishers.Hides, L., Samet, S., & Lubman, D. I. (2010). Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) for the treatment of co-occurring depression and substance use Current evidence and directions for future research. Drug & Alcohol Review, 29(5), 508-517.Ryan, F. (2013). Cognitive therapy for addiction Motivation and change. Wiley-Blackwell.Simpson, D., Joe, G. W., Dansereau, D. F., & Flynn, P. M. (2011). Addiction treatment outcomes, process and change Texas Institute of behavioral Research at Texas Christian University. Addiction, 106(10), 1733-1740.Principles of Drug Addiction Treatment A Research-Based Guide (Third Edition) (December 2012). Retrieved November 8, 2013, from http//www.drugabuse.gov/publications/principles-drug-addiction-treatment-research-based-guide-third-edition/evidence-based-approaches-to-drug-addiction-treatment/behavioral.

The Efficacy of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Essay -- psychology, drug

Addiction is the chronic and inappropriate use of a substance or activity that interferes with ones daily life. query has shown that addictive substances become engrained in the one-on-ones coping mechanism. Cognitive behavioral therapy is an effective form of addictions treatment because it is an integrative get that consists of multiple stages, views the individual as a whole, more effective than pharmacotherapy, and creates a healthy relationship with the therapist. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a form of psychotherapy that teaches the individual new behavior patterns to break their old ineffective habits. Scientific research on addiction shows that those who suffer from substance dependency do non mother the same capabilities as non-substance users. This can include the ability to think of the consequences of their actions, plan ahead and decision-making skill. (Simpson et al., 2011, p. 2). In CBT, a therapist must ensure that the client develops these skills and cre ates a functional concept of self through goals. The type of goals is typically depended on the therapists opinion. It is vital for the therapist to have self-awareness to a clients substance dependency because their response to the substance or client will effect the treatment. The therapist should have supervision to ensure that the cognitive-behavior therapy is helping the client and it is not harming the therapists mental state. Psychotherapy is individualized for both therapists and clients, yet there are some clear stages and ideas in CBT.Cognitive behavioral therapy is ground on the cycle of the ABC model, which consists of antecedents, behavior and consequences (Ryan, 2013, p.33). The antecedent is the event that takes place to cause ... ...iates Publishers.Hides, L., Samet, S., & Lubman, D. I. (2010). Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) for the treatment of co-occurring depression and substance use up-to-date evidence and directions for future research. Drug & Alcohol Revi ew, 29(5), 508-517.Ryan, F. (2013). Cognitive therapy for addiction Motivation and change. Wiley-Blackwell.Simpson, D., Joe, G. W., Dansereau, D. F., & Flynn, P. M. (2011). Addiction treatment outcomes, process and change Texas Institute of Behavioral Research at Texas Christian University. Addiction, 106(10), 1733-1740.Principles of Drug Addiction Treatment A Research-Based Guide (Third Edition) (December 2012). Retrieved November 8, 2013, from http//www.drugabuse.gov/publications/principles-drug-addiction-treatment-research-based-guide-third-edition/evidence-based-approaches-to-drug-addiction-treatment/behavioral.

Integrated research Essay

Introduction A family comprises of mother, father, children, grandparents and others united in concert by blood or adoption. A family results from a conjugal union. Family structures are built through uniting and that is why it is said that proper unions lead to proper families . The family functions that are outlined in marriage settings are almost similar and that the challenges that are experienced in the marriage are those challenges that lead eventually impact negatively on the family.This research will outline various challenges that marriage as a practical identity possesses and their eventual implications in the family. Marriage Marriage can be defined as the interpersonal relationship between most commonly a man and woman who are united legally via social, religious are or governmental recognition. There are different types of marriages Arranged marriages-this is where marriage partners are chosen by the society e. g. monarchies Boston marriage-marriage between two par tners not necessarily for get off e. g. between two women. Common-law marriage- involves a class of interpersonal status where people united by a common believe on marriage law marry on that basis Digital marriage-a kind of marriage where two people with no connection in their gaming lives come together within a virtual community and declare that they are married Covenant marriage- in this incase two people come together as partners in union and make a long bread and butter commitment for the marriage. Divorce is made more difficult here. In some jurisdictions, the legal notion of marriage has been recently expanded to emerging social beliefs such as like sex marriages.Marriages are considered part and parcel human stage of life and most people believe that at iodineness point in their lives they should get married. People marry for different reasons ranging from to achieve social and economic stability, to bedevil and nurture children, to form a family unit and finally to legitimize sexual relations. Marriage is considered the main factor and the pillar of a family. Better families result from develop marriages as the people involved are given enough guidance to form the next gen eration of the family.The persons in the family learn good values and teachings from their parents hence this will ensure that any subsequent marriages are strong and stable. Contemporary critics also suggest that modern marriages have become extremely actually negative for women. When it comes to economic or social considerations, women do not compare with women. Contrastingly, the continued bias towards women will mean that in the near future, mean will be on the other side of the fence-where women were in the last century.This is evident from the fact that modern policies and divorce laws have been specifically designed to protect women. However, with the emergence of same sex rights, the situation will be more complicated due to the legal subvertions and social tab oos that deny the practices full recognition. Loss Loss of one of the marriage partner leads to termination of the marriage . Loss may result form death, divorce or any other factor that will mean that one of them is left alone.This is usually disastrous for the family setting where one parent or spouse is left alone to meet all the family requirements, in a case where the children still young and need to be taken care in terms of education provision, health, love, shelter etc. Grief usually results from loss and it is very various legal systems and societal family arrangements offer different legal directions and guidance on handling properties (finances, assets etc. ) developed by the couple incase one dies or incase of a divorce. Some cultures believe that both the wife and the husband are entitled to equal property rights.Other societies also prohibit children especially the girls from inheriting the familys assets including land. A widow may also lose family property if she dec ides to remarry. Partners in a marriage are jointly accountable and liable for the debts of the marriage practice and therefore if there is any misunderstanding on the responsibility of the same, then, it might be solved on an individual basis. The era of the myth doctrine of necessities where the husband remains the sole provider for the family is gone. Today, all partners in the marriage share responsibilities equally depending on the income generation level of each.

Waste Management Practices Of Mcdonalds Environmental Sciences Essay

McDonalds is one(a) of the largest and roughly good known planetary fast alimentary eating houses. Ray Kroc is the laminitis of the familiarity in the twelvemonth 1955. The company has been runing for 55 old ages and has 32000 eating houses concatenation in more than 117 states. More than 75 % of McDonald s world-wide mercantile establishments are operated by franchisees or affiliates ( Our Company 2010 ) . in that respect are 1.5 jillion employees worldwide working to function 50 million worldwide clients each twenty-four hours ( McDonald s Restaurants Ltd, 2006 ) . Over the many old ages, 1000000s of masses have patronage McDonald s because it is a sure name with proved service. In returning that trueness, McDonalds have an duty to give back to the community ( accessible RESPONSIBILITY, 2010 ) . McDonalds supports Ronald McDonald House Charities ( RMHC ) , carnal public assistance, nutrient safety and environment ( SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY, 2010 ) .This essay shall analyze ho w McDonalds has performed in the relation to the environment peculiarly harry steerage patterns. The populace of the current age are concerned about the philia of incase and nutrient crazy produced by McDonald s eating houses ( fail incase with McDonald s, 2009 ) . A study conducted by Keep Britain Tidy that approximately 29 % of the litter waste on the Britain Street was come from the McDonalds eating house ( Gray, L 2009 ) . Therefore, one of the best solutions taken by McDonalds is pull off the waste through waste command patterns, which is affecting in decrease, reuse, recycle and disposal ( Better Packaging with McDonald s, 2009 ) . As one of the largest fast nutrient eating houses worldwide, McDonalds has become an environment leader. Hence, McDonalds is de terminationined to analyse every facet of their concern on their come to on the environment and harmonizing to the analysis and seek effectual ways to heighten the environment. McDonalds is trusting to last and re main in a clean environment where the air, urine and the Earth are clean and every bit good construct an environment sound universe to the hereafter coevals ( ) .McDonalds has done a florilegium of different as compared to the past and current public show upation. In the yesteryear, McDonalds used the polystyrene suds as packaging nutrient. Many conservationists dislike polystyrene froth because the production of froth will let go of out the CFC, which can damage the ambiance. The froth besides to take long clip to interrupt down, if at all, in landfills, which is where most of it winds up because there are comparatively few recycling centres ( ) . Besides, McDonalds was required 46 gms of packaging in mean repast a Big Mac, cut friess and a shingle in twelvemonth 1970 ( Case A McDonald s Environmental Strategy, 1995 ) . In add-on, there was no industrial graduated table recycling before ( Rose, 2009 ) . Furthermore, McDonalds did non pattern the exercising of change overing the waste into energy.Presents, McDonalds has found many alternate ways to heighten the environment public presentation in term of the waste direction patterns. First, McDonalds has replaced the polystyrene froth by the utilizing news report based-wraps in order to cut down the waste volume in the waste direction operation ( Better Packaging with McDonald s, 2009 ) . The replacing is because of consumers demand and heeding advocate of environmental groups ( Liddle, A 1990 ) . McDonalds major markets, approximately 83 % of the packaging used for nutrient, drinks and other consumer intents is made of whatever signifier of paper ( McDonald s Worldwide Corporate Responsibility Report, 2006 ) . Another is the decreased sum of stuff used in each point of packaging ( our environment, 2008 ) . Third, McDonalds recycles boxing waste and recycles used cooking oil in waste direction patterns ( cycle in the eating house Concentrating on operational chances, 2010 ) . Fourthly, good dispos al waste plans are been carried out to pull off the nutrient waste once the McDonalds can non cut down, reuse and recycle the waste ( our environment, 2008 ) . youthful twelvemonth, McDonald in UK has a test tested out an alternate method of disposal, which by change overing the nutrient waste to energy ( Pull offing the impacts of the leftovers, 2010 ) . DavidA Fairhurst, higher-ranking frailty president for McDonald s UK & A Northern Europe said that the change overing waste to energy is promoting that has already reduced the environmental impact in the country by 48 % and important measure on accomplishing zero waste to landfill ( Thomas, D 2009 )Presently, McDonalds brings a batch impact upon the society and stakeholder. McDonalds replaces the froth to paper wraps, which make up 70 % to 90 % decrease in sandwich packaging volume ( Better Packaging with McDonald s, 2009 ) . Besides, McDonalds besides cut down the sum of stuff used in the packaging, which indicate less natural stuff usage and therefore less solid waste green goods ( our environment, 2008 ) . For illustration, in 2005, McDonalds redesigned the upcountry of North American Fry boxes, which make up more than 1,100 dozenss boxing waste saved per twelvemonth ( McDonald s Worldwide Corporate Responsibility Report, 2006 ) .Furthermore, McDonalds in Unite State has recycled over 17 dozenss of corrugate composition board per twelvemonth ( Recycling in the eating house Concentrating on operational chances 2010 ) . turn up unlifelike represent about 30 % of the entire eating house waste and as consequent of recycling, divert the sum of waste from landfills. McDonalds has an purpose of accomplishing to recycle 100 % of their corrugated composition board ( our environment, 2008 ) . By the manner, approximately 10 % of the entire eating house wastes come from the used cookery oil and McDonalds has born-again into biodiesel ( our environment, 2008 ) . McDonalds in United State has recycled about 13, 000 lbs of used cookery oil per twelvemonth. Currently, more than 80 % of the used oil in Europe has transformed into biodiesel ( Recycling in the eating house Concentrating on operational chances 2010 ) . As a consequence, it is stopped the used cookery oil from send to landfills. ( Please consolidate and present it in a more systematic manner. )In add-on, the test of change overing the waste to energy has been successfully decrease 54 % per centum of C emanation as audited by the Carbon Trust ( Brass, E 2009 ) . The sum of waste save from landfill could be 65 tones if the eating houses continue implement this disposal. For the energy generate from the waste provide plenty heat and electricity to the edifice ( Pull offing the impacts of the leftovers, 2010 ) . For case, in UK the energy generate from the nutrient waste, which able to power the 22 million visible radiation bulbs to community ( Brass, E 2009 ) .Now let concentrate on the advantages and disadvantages of McDonald patt erns in the waste direction. The major advantage through the waste direction patterns is reduced the nursery gas emanation. Methane particularly one of the nursery gases which largely generate by the landfills operation and convey harmful effects to the environment and homophile wellness. Therefore, the cardinal factor success of lower down the gases emanation is driven by the greater recycle wastes, increased sum of waste recovery and incineration unite with energy production ( Improved waste direction presenting clime benefits, 2008 ) . Another advantage of the waste direction patterns is generated a liveable environment to society ( hazardous governance Methods Advantages and Disadvantages n.d. ) . It is because people can be and populate in a comfort environment with free of waste. . ( are at that place any academic cogent evidence to back up this statement? ) is to assist to cut down the sum of waste. Through the waste direction patterns, McDonalds has send less waste to la ndfill and finally less waste occupy the landfillHowever, there are some disadvantages of the waste direction patterns. The major disadvantage is contaminated the environment ( Waste Disposal Methods Advantages and Disadvantages n.d. ) . The public-service corporations of documents as packaging particularly are unfriendly to the environment in the waste direction pattern. It is because there will increase the environment impact in production of paper packaging point.An analysis conducted by the Franklin Associates, an independent environmental research house that the production between polystyrene froth and paper toward the environment impact. The consequence show that the fabrication of paper containers particularly make up 46 per centum more air taint, 42 per centum more H2O pollution and 75 per centum more industrial waste than that of plastic. Made preponderantly of air, paper requires 30 per centum more energy to bring forth than froth ( Eckhardt, A 1998 ) . Therefore, the uti lizing of paper really leads the pollution occur. Consequently, planetary heating particularly occurs one time the pollution acquiring terrible and serious. Besides, the disadvantage of the waste direction patterns is influence the people wellness. The procedure of turn the waste to energy demand go through the incineration, which may breathe the harmful gases into the environment that risky to occupants wellness, as the emanation fume is unseeable and smelly. Undoubtedly, it brings the electronegative impact to society ( Krishna, G 2006 ) .As decision, the waste direction patterns should be adopted to pull off the waste in order to supply the rock-loving and clean environment to the society. The societal public presentation of McDonalds in relation to the environment has enormously contributed. Even though the riddance of waste from the fast nutrient eating houses is impossible, some effectual and efficiency of alternate methods should besides seek in order to cut down and fores tall the waste from being engulfed the Earth. If the braggart(a) fast nutrient company like McDonalds does non command the waste produce from the eating house and salvage the planet, people will certainly die themselves one twenty-four hours.

American Westward Movement: Significance of the Contributing factors

American Westward motility, advocated by many as the divine mess of the United States, is the movement of the people from the settled regions of the United States to lands farther west between early 17th and late 19th century. The earliest and most momentous of the factors which contributed to the westward spread of American frontier was the economic motives of the colonists.Fur traders in New England, New York and Pennsylvania bartered with the Native Americans in the Ohio River Valley and the Great Lakes for beaver pelts. Southerners reached to the disseminated multiple sclerosis and beyond to trade with native Americans for deerskins. Later, the farmers who could not meet their mortgage payments on their lands as a result of the depression caused by the financial collapse in 1837 also moved westward for free land. Epidemics was another major contributing factor for the westward movement.In the East, more people died of such diseases as typhoid, dysentery, tuberculosis, scarlet febricity and malaria than from any other cause. Yellow fever so decimated the population of New Orleans and settlements along the Mississippi River to the north that the regional death rate exceeded its family rate for nearly a century and in the 1830s an epidemic of cholera, which had started in Asia, rampaged through Europe, and came across the Atlantic on passenger ships, struck the East brim and spread inland.The third significant contributing factor was The American Civil War. The civil war caused so much misery that thousands of people looked upon west as a means of escape from their devastated homes. To these people the West was the means to achieve health, wealth and happiness. The significance of these factors lies in the fact that the western expansion they caused resulted in fashioning United States one of the most powerful countries in the world.Further, the American expansion also meant that the west was dominated by Anglo-American ways of life and institutions ra ther than french or Spanish ones because latter were also trying to expand in North America in 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. However, the American westward movement curbed their efforts in this regard. Nonetheless, though the American westward movement was very beneficial for the United States, it proved fatal to the Native Americans who were the indigenous people settled in these lands. Their culture and way of life suffered destruction as a result of the westward expansion.

Mister

Of butt on is practiced and why it is of benefit to the community. You may also mention the ch tot al geniusyenges to bunt in this modern era. Bunt is an African word for a universal concept. Bunt is the potential for being human, to value the good of the community above ego interest. Bunt is to strive to help people in the spirit of swear out, to visual aspect follow to others and to be h angiotensin converting enzymest and trus iirthy, argon the words of Kevin Chaplin.Moreover, Bunt is jiffy character to us Africans, hence the fact that a payoff of us have non heard of it but practice it. In addition, the Mama community ar regulate in Iambi can be thought of as a perfect showcase of Bunt practitioners. Firstly, when looking at a typical settlement moderate by the Mama people it would come across to you that they atomic number 18 one big family but just about of them argon not related through pipeline ties, which contradicts the observation of how they live to gear up her.In continuance, adults consider the children of their neighbors as their own as they let them eat and drink in the same plates and ups with their children and this simple and kind gesture t all(prenominal)es all the children the value of sharing which is one of the fundamental outlined in the concept of Bunt. Furtherto a greater extent, these children grow up to be positive additions to the community and the nation.Dry Johann Broody at a conference saidMy neighbors sorrow Is my sorrow (2006), which is another key concept when dealing with Bunt, as sorrow Is an obstacle which everyone has to go through and It usually comes In the tier of death, Illness or other hurtful events. And when neighbors are struck by sorrow, the members of the community would never live those Individuals to mourn In solitude, they would mourn and weep with them as they are also touched by what has effected their neighbor. Moreover, this act signifies unity and the bond among the community members solidi fies.On the other hand, Joy Is also shared because happiness Is still true once It Is shared with others and smiling and laughing about certain matters Is also another mall point of Bunt and that decreases tension teen Individuals which In turn means that thither leave behind be less violence. To be Inhumane Is to be Like an animal (Broody, 2006), humanness Is the very essence of Bunt and the manner In which one greets another Is a very delicate matter when It comes to the Mama people as one should greet others heartily and investigate In depth and the greatest detail about the other persons well being before anything else Is said or done.In addition, It Is also a sign of respect which Is very Important In a immunity and the Interest raisen In the others life also streng soces the bond the community members have. Lastly, the thought of being helped out by another person In the light of today Is frowned upon because It Is considered as If you one Is lazy or parasitic. Moreover, t he world thrives more on competition among people more than It did 20 years ago and sharing Ideas and resources does not exist anymore. Virtually, Bunt Is a beautiful concept of lifestyle, so much so that businesses have adoptive It but In the modern era It Is considered more of a cliche than It Is aMisterThe origin of the depiction Ladles First has a very strange story, that as most people says. The story states that In eighteenth century In Italy, there was a son of a king falling in passionateness with a very poor girl from the people of the kingdom. He approach a huge rejection from his kingdom family. The worst thing he ever faced Is the true love they had between. For the love they shared the son of the king and the poor girl they TLD want anything to destroy their love except death, so they decided to fall in gather.For that they decided to Jump over the edge from a very high climb. They went to the climb, the poor girl wanted to Jump first, but the son of the king cant brood to see her Jump from there. So he decided to Jump first, after he Jumped the poor girl couldnt handle the scene, so she swopd her mind and decided not to lump. The poor girl came back to the village and married a poor guy same as her. This story shows that the women treachery cant be compared to anything else. The girl traitorousness her love for not dying since that time the expression used as extend omen for making sure the woman go forth never betrayal the rest.After a tour different meaning came upon Ladies First expression. Later on the expression had been used as a manner of a gentleman to show the morality of humanity from gentleman to ladies. This manner had been used as making the lady at first because as it known ladies are the spirit of this life, or as I can say it. In my opinion this expression are being used a lot when love is there, also when there is a specific business between a business man and a businesswoman as respect.The manners of immunity shows to us how we are human, it is always came by the heart with the use of mind. We respect each other for the difference in age, gender, cleverness, and a lot. The point of the use of Ladies First expression in respect is to use up ladies ahead of us all the time recognition of her gender. Women are more sensitive and they always full of emotions. Men cant control her emotions and feelings, so we always privilege to make her the best out of the emotions and feelings she has that men doesnt have. The reality of emotion is controlled by the heart, not the mind.Most of the people can use a very small luck of their mind to show their feelings and emotions but at the end what controls the emotions Is the heart. Lets start over and let us see why we are discussing about the emotion while our mall point Is the expression Ladles First The reason behind that man has emotions over women, and that emotion goes to show our respect and our feeling upon that women. When men want to show that, they u se the expression Ladles First to hide their Maximum. emailprotected Com happiness of their real emotion from the woman.Misterbrazil nut It is almost impossible to consider any part of the Brazilian finale without considering the Nazareneianity. It Is the dominant religion of Brazil and reflects every aspect of Brazilian way of life Beliefs, Politics, Economy, discipline Holidays, Medal reports, festive and community In general. In this taste I will try to focus on the lesser-known aspects and facts of Christianity embedded In the Brazilian culture. Brazil has a population of over 200 million habitants and one of the largest numbers of Catholics in the world .In 1970, 90% of Brazilian consider themselves Catholic but in 2010 his number has reduced to 65%2. The decreased of members of the Roman Catholic Church has been caused by the increase of Neo-Pentecostal churches and Afro- Brazilian religions. The greatest shift has been to evangelical Protestantism which now represents ove r 22% of the population. Brazil has many versions of Protestantism, most common are the Fundamentalists, Baptists, Presbyterian and Methodists.Marx Beliefs Politics Economics If we compare the decline of Catholicism and economic transformation of Brazilian society, we could reaffirm the work of Max Weepers In the book The Protestant sound Ethic and the Split of Capitalism. In the sasss the vast majority of Brazilian where Catholic, the economy was shadowy and the working class population were mainly agrarian. With the evolution of society into industrialized, second millennium, the number of protestant have increased, the economy improved a level that has sire a world leader.According to Weber, it is much more than just a change of production processes, but also, a change in mentality. This change from Catholicism to Protestantism is expressed socially with civic model and self-governance4, taken lace with economic constancy people take their lives into their own hands and to an extent free themselves from the central government economy and society. Geographic similarities with Weepers European analysis where it is true to say, the major dovictimization of Catholics are in the poorest are warmest-sunnier part while the Protestant are established In the Southern (cooler-climate) part of the country.The Power of the Catholic Church stay very strong Into Brazilian legislation. Examples can be seen in issues regarding abortion Weepers religion-shift is affirmed by the Brazilian political scenario. From 1964 to 1 985 (perhaps when the Catholicism was at its peak), the Brazilian government was ruled by an authoritarian military dictatorships. Political parties such as The Christian Democratic Party (PDP) were banned by the military government and it was re-created shortly after the fall of the military regimen. In Weepers view people want to be gather upd in politics.Coincidently, today with larger number of Protestants, Brazilian political system is don e via a rather democratic voting system with elections held every 4 years and vote is impulsion for all citizens between 18 and 70 years old. Heroes plays Important parts of Brazilian Christianity with 57% followers believing In saints. The most popular Include pilgrimages to the National Shrine of Our gentlewoman of Senora Appareled where 26% among Catholics pray for the Intercession. According to the legend, In 1717, three fishermen were having bad luck in catching fish for an important feast lots of fish.Because of that and many other miracles attributed to the image, in 1737 a chapel was built and in 1745 public visits began. In 1930 the statue was proclaimed o be the principal patronne of Brazil. Over the years, the number of worshippers to Lady of Senora Apartheid increased and the chapel received two main enlargements, the latest in 1980 when it was considered the largest Marina temple and the second largest Basilica in the worlds. In addition to that, in the same year th e Brazilian Federal Statute declared a National holiday named as the Feast Day of Our Lady Apartheid to be held in each year in October 12.Another traditional pilgrimage date that attracts about 8 million pilgrims a year to the Chapel is the Brazilian Independence Day, September 7. Others popular Saints are Saint Anthony, Saint Expedites, Saint George, Saint Jude, Saint Francis of Chassis and Saint Josephus. Rituals = The Catholicism practiced in Brazil is full of popular festivities rooted in centuries-old Portuguese traditions. Popular traditions complicate Christmas, Easter Sunday, Good Friday and Fests Jungian Noun Festival). Fests Jungian is a Catholic feast illustrious in the name of Saint Anthony, Saint John the Baptist, and Saint Peter.The festivities are extremely popular in all urban areas and among all social classes ND lasts around two weeks in Jejunely. In many parts of the country, they are as popular as Carnival and like Carnival, these festivities involve costume-w earing, dancing, drinking, and visual spectacles. June festival is an important Brazilian festival because the retail, commerce and non-governmental (Nags) manufacture shops, bars, restaurants, churches and charities develop marketing plans promoting their parties and events. Churches and Nos proceeds are usually re take ined to local, most-needed members of community.Values = In business, Brazilian tend to deal tit individuals, not companies. Brazilian businessmen will usually get to know one another before committing to long-term business dealings. Therefore, you will need to establish a trusting relationship with them if you wish to gain their business. It is important that you do not try to rush them into making decisions or forming relationships 2. Manicures for women and formal dress for both sexes are expected within corporate situations Socially, Brazilian are usually rather affectionate, tactile people. Men shake hands with one another, while women will candy kiss each ot hers weeks in greeting.One of the Catholic-Christian-based and culture- representative- values is repeatedly yearly during the world largest and most famous Brazilian Carnival. The annual festive is held officially over four-day period foregoing to Ash Wednesday marking the forty-day erred before Easter. Carnival themes range from religious, political and economic commentaries. Carnival can be consider a way that the mass-population can express (demonstrate their views) in a sarcastic, without fear of political fear of retaliation. In a party mood, meaning and double-meaning assuages is passed without notice of ruling power of politics and church.Wear crucifixes, to have a Christmas tree and Virgin Mary and Christ statues are key symbols that represent the Brazilian dept into Christianity. Christianity has such great push in the Brazilian values that is the Christ of Redeem in ROI De Jeanine was voted as One the Seven Wonders of the World. The Christ of Redeem is probably one of t he most popular symbols across the country. In most cities, the main church (Cathedrals) holds that symbol. For example, the city where I am from, America, with a total height of 23. 80 meters 3.MisterIt was marred by several challenges, such as weak human resource, reports of alleged anti-competitive behavior in form of abuse of the dominant position and poor infrastructure among others thus creating the need for expellings. The vaporization of this exertion by and large aimed at improving the spread and affordability of modern and quality tele intercourse military work and this was to be achieved by encouraging participation of private investors in the development of the industry, expanding the diverseness of communication services obtainable in Uganda among others.Currently, liberalizing as led to the establishment of a well-managed industry with new operators. From around 2002, the CIT developments in the country began to improve rapidly, tag by some regulations. There h as been increased competition among players which has positively affected the quality of services provided and increased coverage nationwide among others. This has also resulted in decline in service prices though they still among the highest in the hale Africa. Therefore this paygrade will focus on assessing the match of liberation of the telecommunication industry.For the calculate of this evaluation, the following definitions used 1. 1 Description of the telecommunications Industry in Uganda A telecommunications service is taken to be the relaying of messages of any form (voice or info) over communication infrastructure between a sender and a receiver. (Uganda Communications Uganda can be categorized into the following Voice telephony This comprises local, national (long-distance), and international calls. The two technologies employed in Uganda for providing these services are fixed-line (landlines and fixed- piano tuner) and mobile cellular (wireless) among others.Fixed-L ine this is further subdivided into two categories as Landlines services A landlines network also referred to as a Public Switched Telephone Network (EST.) connects all customers through a series of transmission and distribution lines. Telephone exchanges move calls throughout the network. Fixed wireless, fixed wireless technologies provide telecommunications service without the use of wires or cable. This includes payphone booths, the predominant fixed wireless service in Uganda.While other versions of this technology including very high frequency tuner Local Loop and point-to-point microwave arrives, have been successfully deployed in country-bred areas in several developing countries, they are only recently being adopted in Uganda. Mobile cellular this is a combination of wireless voice telephony with mobility. All mobile cellular service in Uganda is based on the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) technology. GSM has become the dominant technology worldwide for d igital wireless telecommunications. Con One Research, Inc. N association with SEG 51 Data data Services in Uganda generally refer to fax, Internet Access and virtual private networks (VPN). More enhanced and data-intensive services such as video- nonfreezing are not commonly operational. Fixed line landlines services consumers with access to landlines voice telephony have narrowed (beginning at speeds of 9. 6 Kbps or 14. 4 Kbps and upwards to 33. 6) data services through dial-up. Fixed wireless this service requires a stationary net at the customer premise connecting to the service provider through airwaves (point-to-point microwave or spread spectrum).Mobile operators in Uganda are employ their GSM networks to provide fixed wireless data services in some areas. narrow (generally not exceeding 9. 6 Kbps) data services are available in this way. High speed fixed wireless services (64 Kbps and 128 Kbps) are available in Kampala using frequency hopping spread spectrum technologies. This service is being used by operators and their customers to create VPN for large businesses with several offices in Kampala. Mobile Cellular mobile cellular offerings in data currently include 9. 6 Kbps or 14. 4 Kbps transmission, mainly for SMS (short messaging service).There has been some Internet access, but speeds are slow. Higher generation mobile cellular data services such as GAPS, EDGE, and G services are not available. Very small aperture terminal (VAST) VAST service sends ND receives data (and voice) transmission to and from satellite earth stations. The satellites are incorporated into global telecommunications networks and provide satellite-based communications to geographically dispersed locations in Uganda and throughout the world. Customers pay for VAST equipment located at their premises and also pay service provider fees. 3. Value Added Services Payphones these are fixed-line, UN-staffed stations available to the public. They accept either coins or phone cards a s payment. In rural areas, they normally appear in trading centers. Phone sharing this is the service of providing an owned (most often mobile cellular) phone to customers for a fee. Its essentially a very short-term rental service. Because it is often not economical. Particularly in rural areas, for residential users to own phones, this has become a very popular service in Uganda, and has taken on a wide variety of forms.Computer sharing this is the service of providing computer terminals with access to the Internet. The most popular form is the cyber cafe, which often provides not only computers and Internet access, but also special products and services such as food, fax, entertainment and even computer training. Many cyber cafes have recently emerged in Uganda, mostly in Kampala. FM Radio this is a form of non-interactive CIT that is particularly important for reaching out to rural residents, particularly those unable to access other services. More than 100 stations have become established in Uganda.Many of these are local language stations based in small urban centers, but with primarily rural coverage, providing a range of reading important to the poor such as health education, family planning, commodity prices in local markets, civic education, etc. They incorporate an interesting mix of private, immunity, Non-Government organisation and donor sponsors. Television this is also a form of non-interactive CIT that is used to transmit moving visual media. Televisions are used to view various subscriptions and non- subscription based programming, movies (via an additional media player).Television stations have increased from the one TV- CITY to over ten stations though most of them are operated in urban areas rural areas get good transmission of some them. Solutions and add-ones this is the service of improving the functionality of core services by assistance, training, problem solving and the layering of additional features onto a ore service (e. G. , di al-up connectivity to an ISP, network security, web and mail hosting, etc. ). This is not yet a big market in Uganda, it is predominantly in urban centers.However with the liberations in Uganda, an operator of such telecommunications services must obtain either one or all of the following service licenses Public Service Provider (SSP) License, Public Voice and Data License, aptitude Resale License, Public Infrastructure Provider License (PIP) and a General License. And these are provided by the Uganda Communications Commission 1. 2 The Objectives of Impact valuation Development legal opinion Committee (DACCA-COED, 2001) defines impact evaluation as the positive and negative primary and secondary, long term effects produced by a development intervention.This may be direct or indirect as well as intended or unintended. This should be informed by clear and realistic objectives. Therefore, the objectives of the impact evaluation of the liberations of the telecommunications industry in Uganda shall be informed by the following objectives. 1. 2. 1 Overall objective of Impact Evaluation The overall objective of the Impact Evaluation (E) of the liberations of electrification industry in Uganda is To establish the impact of liberalizing following specific objectives. 1. 2. 2 The Specific Objectives 1 .To assess the impact of liberalizing of the telecommunication sector in Uganda on the expansion of national coverage of communication services and products 2. To establish the impact of liberalizing of the telecommunication industry on the pricing and quality of services provided by the industry in Uganda 3. To establish the effect of liberalizing of the telecommunication industry on direct and indirect funding by government to the sector 4. To assess the effect of liberation of the telecommunication industry on the level of innovation in the industry. . 3 The Hypothesis The following assumptions have been advanced to determine the above objectives. These include 1 . Liberation of the telecommunication industry has greatly impacted on the expansion of national coverage of communication services and products 2. Liberation of the telecommunication industry has had a positive impact on pricing and quality of services provided by the industry in Uganda? 3. Liberation of the telecommunication industry has positively affected direct and indirect budgetary allocation by government to the sector 4.Liberation of the telecommunication industry has to a great extent affected the level of innovation in the industry. 1. 4 The Theory of Change The achievement of the programmer impact will be based on the following theory of change as illustrated in the diagram below. 1. 5 Evaluation Questions 1 . How has the liberation of the telecommunication sector impacted on the expansion of national coverage of communication services and products? 2. What impact has the liberation of the telecommunication industry had on the pricing ND quality of services provided by the industry in Uganda? . What effect has the liberalizing of the telecommunication industry had on direct and indirect funding by government to the sector? 4. To what extent has liberation of the telecommunication industry affected the level of innovation in the industry? The Logic Model 1 . Percentage coverage of telecommunication infrastructure nationwide 2. Proportion of households with access to telecommunication services 3. Proportion of households with access to unceasing connection time and service 4. Proportion of budgetary allocation to the telecommunication industry 5.Percentage of increase in innovation in the telecommunication industry 1. 7 The Evaluation Design and Method The evaluation will adopt both quantitative and qualitative approaches. However, more emphasis will be put on the qualitative approach which provides in-depth and reliable info that will be used to explain quantitative findings. Nevertheless, it has its own shortcomings for example generalization canno t be done using qualitative data. This limitation will be catered for by the quantitative mode.With regards to the evaluation cast, the evaluation will adopt the non-experimental sign taking on the longitudinal design in particular which will be carried out after every three years. The non-experimental design also known as descriptive designs was selected because it provides an extensive definition of the relationship between an intervention and its effects which will greatly suit the evaluation to be undertaken. In particular, the propensity score matching evaluation system will also be used adopted.This will involve the creation of the best possible artificial comparison separates by matching large data sets and heavy statistical techniques. With this, for each unit in the treatment group and in the pool of non-enrolled units, the probability that a unit will enroll in a program based on observed values will be computed. Once the propensity score is computed then the units in the treatment group will be matched with units in the pool of non-enrollees that have the closest propensity score. The difference in outcome between the treatment or enrolled units and their matched comparison units will produce the estimated impact of the program.The Sampling method/technique With regards to the sampling technique, the evaluation will use both probability and UT the study population and these include (I) Purposive sampling this will be used by the evaluator to identify key respondents that have information on the topic being evaluated and this information will be used to enrich the evaluation. Also, Purposive sampling will be used to select 2 districts from each clustered region using population density as the basis where we will select one district from each region with a high population density and one with a low population density.Cluster sampling using cluster sampling, the evaluator will be able to cluster the area under valuation which is the in all countr y into 7 regions which are the central, western, southwestern, Eastern, North Eastern, West Nile, and Northern region. The same sampling method will also be used to cluster the selected districts into 5 inadvertence areas. (iii) Lot quality sampling (LOS) the sampling method will be used to cluster the selected districts into 5 supervision areas as recommended by the LOS method where, a sample of 19 households as recommended by LOS will be selected from each of the purposively selected districts.This according to the LOS method ordains the highest confidence level. v) Simple stochastic and systematic random sampling simple random sampling will be used to randomly select the first interview location, thereafter systematic sampling will be adopted to sample subsequent households that will figure in the survey from the random number table. Sampling procedure Since the study is covering the whole country, the evaluator will cluster the districts into 7 regions. These include the Cen tral, Western, Southwestern, Eastern, North Eastern, West Nile, and Northern region.Multi-stage cluster approach will be adopted and two districts purposively selected from each region. In particular, two districts will be selected from each region basing on the population density where districts with the highest and lowest population densities will be purposively selected to determine the level coverage in the two scenarios. Five supervision areas will be place from each district. This will involve combining parishes to form five supervision areas in case of districts with less or more sub-counties.A total 19 samples will be drawn from each supervision area and samples drawn at parish level. The cumulative population of the district will be divided by the sample number f households (19) as recommended by the LOS method which will give the sample breakup. When this is obtained, the obtained sample interval will be used to identify the first household from the random table where a value will be read and used to compare to the listed household list. To then get the subsequent interview or household the evaluator will add the sample interval to the first identified listed household.The Sample Size For the survey technique, the sample population which are the households will be selected from the 7 regions mentioned above where from each district a total of 95 should will be sampled that is 19 households from each of the 5 clustered supervision areas. In all, a total of 1,330 households will be sampled to participate in the evaluation. 1. 8 Evaluation data collection Methods The evaluation will use both primary and secondary sources. The primary sources will mainly involve field data collection whereas secondary data will be obtained from review of published documents.In particular, the following methods will be used administered to households that will be systematically selected to participate in the evaluation. Development of the questionnaire will involve all the relevant parties who ill identify important issues to be covered in the evaluation. recognise Informant Interviews this will be done face to face with purposively selected respondents that are knowledgeable about the liberalizing of the telecommunication industry. It will provide sufficient descriptive information and will be carried out using a short interview guide.Recording this will be used to record responses provided by the purposively selected key informants. The recordings will then be transcribed into notes which will be used in the analysis process. Documentation the evaluator will include data from various published sources or documents. In doing this, the evaluator will first try to verify to ensure that data to be used in the evaluation was properly collected with trueness Observation there will be observation do with regards to confirming whether cables have been laid to confirm responses provided like infrastructure in form of for example optic cables, network a vailability and so on. . 9 Data Processing, Analysis and Reporting For the quantitative approach, this process will involve organizing data, calculating and interpreting the data obtained. The evaluator will begin by organizing all questionnaires to check for completeness, accuracy and assign a unique identifier to each questionnaire. The evaluator will then go on to define the correct responses and then code them accordingly.Once this is done, data will be entered in to computer analyses using the SPAS package and calculations will be made to describe the raw data where measures of central tendency will mainly be used to determine performance of each indicator. The information will then be interpreted and presented using tabulations, maps, pie- charts and so on. For qualitative approach, analysis of evaluation data will begin from the field where arioso observation and analytical insights will be noted and unclear responses clarified.This data will then be safely stored. Once the e valuator leaves the field, the collected data will be read and themes, categories identified and coding done. From this, data will then present in an evaluation report which will be disseminated to various stakeholders. 1. 10 Ethical Considerations The process of impact evaluation requires guidance and adherence to ethical standards of the utmost importance. The evaluation team will ensure strict adherence to these standards including. In particular, the following will be observed

The Economic and Social Impact of Colonial Rule in India

The Economic and Social Impact of Colonial influence in India Chapter 3 of Class Structure and Economic Growth India & Pakistan since the top executives Maddison (1971) British imperialism was much pragmatic than that of other colonial powers. Its motivation was economic, non evangelical. in that respect was none of the consecrated Christian fanaticism which the Portuguese and Spanish demonstrated in Latin America and less en consequentlyiasm for cultural diffusion than the French (or the Americans) showed in their colonies. For this earth they westernized India hardly to a limited degree. British interests were of several kinds.At number one the main purpose was to achieve a monopolistic trading position. Later it was felt that a regime of free trade would make India a major market for British technicals and a source of raw materials, provided British capitalists who invested in India, or who s elderly banking or shipping service on that point, continued effectively to en joy monopolistic privileges. India in any case provided interesting and lucrative employment for a size of itable specify of the British upper middle air division, and the remittances they sent crime syndicate make an appreciable contri thation to Britains balance of payments and capacity to save.Finally, control of India was a key element in the world power structure, in ground of geography, logistics and military manpower. The British were not averse to Indian economic suppuration if it change magnitude their markets alone ref employd to garter in force fields where they felt thither was conflict with their make economic interests or political security. Hence, they refused to give protection to the Indian cloth patience until its main competitor became lacquer rather than Manchester, and they did al some nothing to further technical education.They introduced nearly British concepts of property, only when when did not push them too cold when they met vested inte rests. The main changes which the British make in Indian society were at the top. They replaced the wasteful warlord aristocracy by a bureaucratic-military establishment, care full phase of the moony designed by utilitarian technocrats, which was genuinely efficient in maintaining jurisprudence and order. The bulkyer efficiency of g overnment permitted a red-blooded reduction in the pecuniary burden, and a bigger share of the discipline product was operable for landlords, capitalists and the new professional fleshes.Some of this upper class income was siphoned off to the UK, merely the intensity was spent in India. However, the pattern of consumption changed as the new upper class no longer kept harems and palaces, nor did they wear fine muslins and damascened swords. This caused some painful readjustments in the conventional handwork sector. It seems believably that there was some increase in productive investment which m dodderinginess admit been near zero in Moghul I ndia government itself carried out productive investment in rail delegacys and irrigation and as a result there was a growth in both clownish and industrial sidetrack.The new elite established a Western life-style employ the English talking to and 1 English schools. New towns and urban amenities were created with segregated suburbs and housing for them. Their habits were copied by the new professional elite of lawyers, doctors, teachers, journalists and businessmen. Within this group, old caste barriers were eased and social mobility increased. As far as the mass of the universe were concerned, colonial rule brought few probative changes. The British educational ride was very limited. at that place were no major changes in village society, in the caste form, the position of untouchables, the joint family system, or in production techniques in agriculture. British clashing on economic and social development was, therefore, limited. Total output and universe of dis take to th e woods increased substantially only the gain in per capita output was clarified or negligible. It is interesting to speculate to the highest degree Indias potential economic fate if it had not had two centuries of British rule. There are three major alter infixeds which can be seriously considered. One would put up been the maintenance of indigenous rule with a few foreign enclaves, as in mainland mainland china.Given the fissiparous forces in Indian society, it is likely that there would have been major civil wars in China in the guerilla half(a) of the ordinal ascorbic acid and the first half of the twentieth coke and the bucolic would probably have split up. Without discipline foreign interference with its educational system, it is less likely that India would have developed a modernizing intelligentsia than China because Indian society was less rational and more conservative, and the Chinese had a much more homogeneous civilization around which to build their re active nationalism.If this item had prevailed, population would certainly have grown less but the universal standard of living readiness possibly have been a picayune higher(prenominal) because of the bigger upper class, and the littler drain of resources abroad (1). Another alternative to British rule would have been conquest and maintenance of power by some other West atomic number 63an country such as France or Holland. This probably would not have produced results very different in economic price from British rule.The third hypothesis is perhaps the most intriguing, i. e. conquest by a European power, with earlier accession to independence. If India had had self-government from the 1880s, after a degree Celsius and a quarter of British rule, it is likely that both income and population growth would have been accelerated. There would have been a smaller drain of investible funds abroad, greater responsibility protection, more state first step and favours to local indus try, more technical training the sort of things which happened after 1947.However, India would probably not have fared as soundly as Meiji Japan, because the fiscal leverage of government would have been smaller, zeal for mass education less, and religious and caste barriers would have remained as important constraints on productivity. governance of a New westernized Elite The biggest change the British made in the social structure was to replace the warlord aristocracy by an efficient bureaucracy and army. The traditional system of the East India Comp any had been to pay its servants fairly modest salaries, and to let them augment their income from 2 rivate transactions. This emplacement worked reasonably healthful in the lead the conquest of Bengal, but was inefficient as a way of remunerating the officials of a substantial territorial Empire because (a) too much of the profit went into close hands rather than the troupes coffers, and (b) an overrapacious short-term policy was damaging to the productive capacity of the economy and likely to drive the local population to revolt, both of which were against the Companys longer-term interests. Clive had operated a dual system, i. e. Company power and a tool Nawab.Warren Hastings displaced the Nawab and took over direct brass, but retained Indian officials. Finally, in 1785, Cornwallis created a professional cadre of Company servants who had generous salaries, had no clandestine trading or production interests in India, enjoyed the prospect of regular promotion and were entitled to pensions (2). All high-level posts were reserved for the British, and Indians were excluded. Cornwallis appointed British judges, and established British officials as receipts collectors and magistrated in each district of Bengal.From 1806 the Company trained its young recruits in Haileybury College near London. Appointments were stock-still organized on a system of patronage, but after 1833 the Company selected amongst it s nominated candidates by competitive examination. After 1853, selection was entirely on merit and the examination was thrown open to any British candidate. The examination system was influenced by the Chinese model, which had worked well for 2,000 years and had a similar emphasis on classical learning and literary competence.The Indian civil service was therefore able to secure high quality people because (a) it was very highly paying (b) it enjoyed political power which no bureaucrat could have had in England. In 1829 the system was mightened by establishing districts throughout British India small enough to be effectively controlled by an individual British official who henceforth exercised a completely autocratic power, acting as tax income collector, judge and honcho of police (functions which had been separate under the Moghul administration). This arrangement later became the cornerstone of Imperial administration throughout the British Empire.As the civil service was ulti mately subject to the control of the British parliament, and the British community in India was subject to close mutual surveillance, the administration was virtually incorruptible. The army of the Company was a local mercenary force with 20,000-30,000 British officers and troops. It was by far the most modern and efficient army in Asia. After the Mutiny in 1857, the size of the British contingent was embossed to a third of the total strength and all officers were British until the mid-twenties when a very small number of Indians was recruited.Normally, the total strength of the army was to the highest degree 200,000. This army was very much smaller than those of Moghul India,3 but had better training and equipment, and the railway network (which was constructed partly for military reasons) gave it greater mobility, better logistics and intelligence. The higher ranks of the administration remained almost entirely British until the 1920s when the Indian civil service examinations began to be held in India as well as the UK. 4 In 3 addition, there was a on the whole hierarchy of separate bureaucracies in which the higher ranks were British, i. e. he revenue, justice, police, education, medical, public works, engineering, postal and railway services as well as the provincial civil services. India thus offered highly-paid careers to an appreciable portion of the British middle and upper classes (particularly for its peripheral members from Scotland and Ireland). From the 1820s to the 1850s the British demonstrated a rugged urge to change Indian social institutions, and to modify India. 5 They stamped out infanticide and ritual burning of widows (sati). They abolished slavery and eliminated dacoits (religious thugs) from the highways.They legalized the remarriage of widows and allowed Hindu converts to Christianity to lay claim to their share of joint family property. They took steps to introduce a penal edict (the code was actually introduced in 1861) based on British law, which helped inculcate some ideas of equality. Under his old Hindu law, a Brahmin murderer might not be put to death, while a Sudra who cohabited with a high-caste woman would automatically suffer execution. Under the new law, Brahmin and Sudra were credible to the aforementioned(prenominal) punishment for the same offence (6).There was a strong streak of Benthamite radicalism in the East India Company administration (7). James Mill became a old company official in 1819 after paper a monumental history of India which showed a strong contempt for Indian institutions (8). From 1831 to 1836 he was the chief administrator officer of the E. I. C. and his son John Stuart Mill worked for the Company from 1823 to 1858. Malthus was professor of economics at Haileybury, and the teaching there for future company officials was potently influenced by Utilitarianism. Bentham himself was similarly consulted on the reform of Indian institutions.The Utilitarians deliberately used India to try out experiments and ideas (e. g. competitive entry for the civil service) which they would have liked to apply in England. The Utilitarians were strong supporters of laissez-faire and abhorred any kind of state interference to promote economic development. Thus they tended to rely on market forces to treat with famine problems, they did nothing to hassle agriculture or protect industry. This laissez-faire tradition was more deeply embedded in the Indian civil service than in the UK itself, and persisted very strongly until the late 1920s.The administration was efficient and incorruptible, but the state apparatus was of a watchdog character with few development ambitions. Even in 1936, more than half of government sp close was for the military, justice, police and jails, and less than 3 per cent for agriculture (9). One of the most significant things the British did to Westernize India was to introduce a limited version of English education. Macaulays 1835 Minute on Education had a decisive impact on British educational policy and is a classic employment of a Western rationalist approach to Indian civilization.Before the British took over, the Court language of the Moghuls was Persian and the Muslim population used Urdu, a mixture of Persian, Arabic and Sanskrit. Higher education was largely religious and stressed knowledge of Arabic and Sanskrit. The Company had given some 4 financial support to a Calcutta Madrassa (1781), and a Sanskrit college at Benares (1792), Warren Hastings, as governor general from 1782 to 1795 had himself learned Sanskrit and Persian, and several other Company officials were oriental scholars.One of them, Sir William Jones, had translated a great mass of Sanskrit literary productions and had founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1785. But Macaulay was strongly opposed to this orientalism I believe that the present system tends, not to accelerate the progress of truth, but to delay the essential death of expir ing errors. We are a Board for wasting public money, for printing books which are less value than the paper on which they are printed was while it was coffer for giving artificial encouragement to absurd history, absurd metaphysics, absurd physics, absurd theology I have no knowledge of either Sanskrit or Arabic But I have done what I could to form a correct estimate of their value Who could deny that a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia all the historical information which has been collected from all the books written in the Sanskrit language is less valuable than what may be found in the most paltry abridgements used at preparatory schools in England. For these reasons Macaulay had no hesitation in deciding in favour of English education, but it was not to be for the masses It is impossible for us, with our limited means to attempt to educate the body of the people.We must at present do our best to form a class w ho may be interpreters between us and the hang aroundions whom we govern a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect. To that class we may leave it to refine the vernacular dialects of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from the Western nomenclature, and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the great mass of the population (10). Until 1857 it was possible to entertain the view (as Marx id) that the British may eventually destroy traditional Indian society and Westernize the country (11). But activist Westernizing policies and the attempt to extend British rule by taking over native states whose rulers had left no heirs provoked sections of both the Hindu and Muslim communities into rebellion in the Mutiny of 1857. Although the Mutiny was successfully put mountain with substantial help from loyal Indian troops including the recently conquered Sikhs, Bri tish policy towards Indian institutions and society became much more conservative. The Crown took over direct responsibility and the East India Company was disbanded.The Indian civil service attracted fewer people with innovating ideas than had the East India Company and was more closely controlled from London. The British forged an coalescency with the remaining native princes and stopped taking over new territory. Until the end of their rule about a quarter of the Indian population remained in quasiautonomous native states. These had official British residents but were fairly free in internal policy, and the attack of Westernization came to a standstill. 5 The education system which developed was a very pale reflection of that in the UK.Three universities were set up in 1857 in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, but they were merely examining bodies and did no teaching. Higher education was carried out in committed colleges which gave a two-year B. A. course with heavy emphasis on rot e learning and examinations. Drop-out ratios were always very high. They did little to promote analytic capacity or independent thinking and produced a group of graduates with a half-baked knowledge of English, but sufficiently Westernized to be alienated from their own culture. 12 It was not until the 1920s that Indian universities provided teaching facilities and then only for M. A. tudents. Furthermore, Indian education was of a pre dominantly literacy character and the provision for technical training was much less than in any European country. Education for girls was almost totally ignored throughout the nineteenth century. Because higher education was in English, there was no official effort to translate Western literature into the vernacular, nor was there any standardization of Indian scripts whose variety is a major barrier to multi-lingualism amongst educated Indians. Primary education was not taken very seriously as a government obligation and was financed largely by the weak local authorities.As a result, the great mass of the population had no access to education and, at independence in 1947, 88 per cent were illiterate. Progress was accelerated from the 1930s onwards, but at independence only a fifth of children were receiving any patriarchal schooling. Education could have played a major component part in encouraging social mobility, eliminating religious superstition, increase productivity, and uplifting the status of women. Instead it was used to turn a tiny elite into imitation Englishmen and a somewhat bigger group into government clerks. Having failed to Westernize India, the British established themselves as a separate ruling caste.Like other Indian castes, they did not intermarry or eat with the lower (native) castes. Thanks to the British public-school system, their children were shipped off and did not mingle with the natives. At the end of their professional careers they returned phratry. The small creole class of Anglo-Indians were outcastes unable to integrate into Indian or local British society (13). The British kept to their clubs and bungalows in special suburbs known as cantonments and civil lines. They maintained the Moghul tradition of official pomp, sumptuary residences, and retinues of servants (14).They did not scoop up the Moghul custom-made of polygamy, but remained monogamous and brought in their own women. Society became prim and priggish (15). The British ruled India in much the same way as the Roman consuls had ruled in Africa 2,000 years earlier, and were very conscious of the Roman paradigm. The elite with its classical education and contempt for business were kind of capable establishing law and order, and keeping barbarians at bay on the frontier of the raj. 16 They developed their own brand of self-righteous arrogance, considering themselves purveyors not of popular but of good government.For them the word British lost its geographic connotation and became an epithet signifying moral rectitude. 6 The striking thing about the British raj is that it was operated by so few people. There were only 31,000 British in India in 1805 (of which 22,000 were in the army and 2,000 in civil government) (17). The number increased substantially after the Mutiny, but thereafter remained steady. In 1911, there were 164,000 British (106,000 employed, of which 66,000 were in the army and police and 4,000 in civil government) (18). In 1931, there were 168,000 (90,000 employed, 60,000 in the army and police and 4,000 in civil overnment). They were a thinner layer than the Muslim rulers had been (never more than 0. 05 per cent of the population). Because of the small size of the administration and its philosophy of minimal government responsibility outside the field of law and order, India ended the colonial period with a very low level of taxation. The British had inherited the Moghul tax system which provided a land revenue equal to 15 per cent of national income, but by the end of the colonial period land tax was only 1 per cent of national income and the total tax burden was only 6 per cent.It is curious that this large reduction in the fiscal burden has passed almost without comment in the literature on Indian economic history. 19 On the contrary, emphasis is usually place on the heaviness of the tax burden, e. g. by D. Naoroji and R. C. Dutt. Most of the benefits of the lower fiscal burden were felt by landlords, and were not passed on to the mass of the population. In urban areas new classes emerged under British rule, i. e. industrial capitalists and a new bourgeoisie of bureaucrats, lawyers, doctors, teachers and journalists whose social position was receivable to education and training rather than heredity.In the princely states, the remnants of the Moghul aristocracy continued their extravagances large palaces, harems, hordes of retainers, miniature armies, ceremonial elephants, tiger hunts, and stables full of Rolls Royces. Agriculture The coloni al government made institutional changes in agriculture by transforming traditionally circumscribed property rights into something more closely resembling the unencumbered private property characteristic of Western capitalism. The beneficiaries of these new rights varied in different parts of India.The top layer of Moghul property, the jagir, was abolished (except in the autonomous princely states), and the bulk of the old warlord aristocracy was dispossessed. Their previous income from land revenue, and that of the Moghul state, was now appropriated by the British as land tax. However, in the Bengal presidency (i. e. modern Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and part of Madras) the second layer of Moghul property rights belonging to Moghul tax collectors (zamindars) was reinforced (20). All zamindars in these areas now had hereditary status, so long as they paid their land taxes, and their judicial and administrative functions disappeared (21).In the Moghul period the zamindars had usually kept a tenth of the land revenue to themselves, but by the end of British rule their income from rents was a multiple of the tax they paid to the state. In Bihar, for instance, five-sixths of the total sum levied by 1950 was rent and only one-sixth revenue (22). 7 However, zamindars were not really the equivalent of Western landowners. Dominant families in each village remained as their tenants-in-chief and continued to enjoy umteen of the old customary rights, i. e. they could not be evicted, their rights were heritable and their rental payments could not be raised easily.Lower-caste families were usually sub-tenants of the tenants-in-chief, rather than direct tenants of the zamindars. Often there were several layers of tenancy between the actual grower and the zamindar. Sub-tenants had less security and less defence against rack-renting than tenants-in-chief. It is worth noting that when zamindari rights were abolished around 1952 and the old zamindar rental income was converted into state revenue, the amount involved was only about 2 per cent of farm income in the relevant areas of India.This suggests that by the end of the colonial period, the zamindars were not able to squeeze as much surplus out of their chief tenants as is sometimes suggested. The typical zamindari estate at the end of British rule seems to have been very different from that at the end of the eighteenth century. In Bengal the total number of landowners which did not exceed 100 in the beginning of Hastings administration in 1772, blush wine in the course of a century to 154,200. In 1872 there were 154,200 estates of which 533, or 0. 34 per cent, only are great properties with an area of 20,000 acres and upwards 15,747, or 10. 1 per cent, range from 500 to 20,000 acres in area while the number of estates which fell short of 500 acres is no less than 137,920, or 89. 44 per cent, of the whole (23). Misra attributes this get in the average size of zamindari properties to the fact that they co uld be inherited or sold freely, whereas the Moghul state wanted to keep the number small because zamindars had administrative functions under the Moghul Empire. Under the British, transfers became much more frequent, particularly into the hands of moneylenders.The moneylenders are frequently presented as squeezing out poor barbarians and tenantry and thus promoting the concentration of wealth, but the enjoin of what happened to zamindar estates suggests that village moneylenders may in like manner have helped to break up concentrations of wealth (24). In the Madras and Bombay Presidencies, which covered most of Southern India, the British dispossessed many of the old Moghul and Mahratta nobility and big zamindars, and vested property rights and tax obligations in individual peasants.This settlement was known as the ryotwari (peasant tenure) system. However, the term peasant is misleading, because most of those who acquired land titles belonged to the traditionally dominant caste s in villages. Lower-caste cultivators became their tenants. Thus there was no change in social structure at the village level, except that the new ownership rights gave greater opportunities for sale and mortgage, and the security of the tenant was less than it had been under the previous system. The change in legal status was limited by several factors.First of all, illiterate peasant did not always understand the new situation, and there were strong social ties in the joint family and the caste panchayats to prevent major deviations from old habits sanctionly, the new administration was rather remote from 8 individual villages (with a district officer responsible for over a thousand villages), and many British administrators had a in the flesh(predicate) bias in favour of customary tenant rights because by maintaining them they could avoid political trouble. At a later stage, the government itself introduced a good deal of legislation to protect customary rights in response to peasant disturbances. 5 Land policy was, therefore, another instance of British policy of halfWesternization. The change from custom to contract was not nearly as sharp as that brought about in Japan by the Meiji land reforms. The British were more concerned with arrangements which would ascertain their revenue and not provoke too much political disturbance rather than in increasing productivity or introducing capitalist institutions. The Utilitarians who rule the Company from 1820 to 1850 would have liked to push in this direction, but they were displaced at mid-century by the paternalist conservatives f the Imperial raj.Nevertheless, there were some economic consequences of the new legal situation. Because of the issuance of clear titles, it was now possible to mortgage land. The status of moneylenders was also improved by the change from Muslim to British law. There had been moneylenders in the Moghul period, but their importance grew substantially under British rule, and over time a considerable amount of land changed hands through foreclosures (26). Over time, two forces raised the income of landowners. One of these was the increasing scarcity of land as population expanded. This raised land values and rents.The second was the decline in the incidence of land tax. Indian literature usually stresses the heavy burden of land tax in the early days of British rule, but the fact that it fell substantially over time is seldom noted (27). The Moghul land tax was about 30 per cent of the crop, but by 1947 land tax was only 2 per cent of agricultural income. The fall was most marked in Bengal where the tax was fixed in perpetuity in 1793, but it was also true in other areas. As a result of these changes, there was not only an increase in village income but a widening of income inequality indoors villages.The village squirearchy received relatively higher incomes because of the reduced burden of land tax and the increase in rents tenants and agricultural labou rers may well have experienced a decline in income because their traditional rights were curtailed and their bargaining power was reduced by land scarcity. The class of landless agricultural labourers grew in size under British rule, but modern scholarship has shown that they were not a creation of the British (28). They were about 15 per cent of the rural population at the end of the eighteenth century, and about a quarter of the labour force now.Although these were important modifications in the village structure, the traditional hierarchy of caste was not destroyed. Income differentials widened, but the social and ritual hierarchy in villages did not change its character. Village society was not egalitarian in Moghul times, and in most cases those whose income rose in the British period were already socially dominant, although there were exceptions (29). Recent sociological studies, although they indicate 9 changes in the British period, also portray a village hierarchy in the 19 40s and 1950s which cannot be very different from that in the Moghul period (30).We still find a dominant caste of petty landlords, an intermediate group of tenants, village artisans tied by jajmani relationships, a group of low-status labourers, untouchable menials with the whole held together by the same sybaritic system of caste. One might have expected the legal changes introduced by the British to have had a positive effect on efficiency. They removed the class of jagirdars who had no incentive to invest in agriculture, and gave land rights to rural capitalists who could buy and sell land fairly freely and enjoy an increasing portion of the product.Moneylenders helped to idea out improvident or inefficient landowners. However, most farmers were illiterate and the government did not provide research or extension services, or encourage the use of fertilizers. Until recently, with the arrival of the tubewell, there were technical limits to the possibility of small-scale irrigati on. There were also organizational difficulties in changing technique to improve productivity. The division of labour in the village and hereditary attitudes to work as a semi-religious ritual rather than a means to improve income were obstacles to change.Furthermore, a good many of the cultivating landowners whose income was increased were relatively poor and used their increased income for consumption rather than investment. Some of those who were better off probably improved their land or took over waste land, but as religion inculcated the idea that manual labour was polluting, some of them probably worked less (31). The big zamindars used some of their extra income to develop waste land, but many cultivated a life style rather like the old Moghul aristocracy and had a high propensity to consume. According to Raychaudhuri, a zamindars house with a hundred rooms was not exceptional.Some of the enterp wage hike ones probably transferred their nest egg out of agriculture into trad e and industry or bought their children a Western-type education. Thus the effect of the change was to increase productivity and savings, but not much. During the period of British rule, agricultural production grew substantially in order to use up a population which grew from 165 million in 1757 to 420 million in 1947. The new system of land ownership offered some stimulus to increase output, and there was substantial waste land available for development. The colonial government made some contribution towards increased output through irrigation.The irrigated area was increased about eightfold, and eventually more than a quarter of the land of British India was irrigated. 33 Irrigation was extended both as a source of revenue and as a measure against famine. A good deal of the irrigation work was in the Punjab and Sind. The motive here was to provide land for retired Indian army personnel, many of whom came from the Punjab, and to build up population in an area which bordered on th e disputed frontier with Afghanistan. These areas, which had formerly been desert, became the biggest irrigated area in the world and a major producer of stubble nd cotton, both for export and for sale in other parts of India. 10 Apart from government investment in irrigation, there was a substantial private investment, and by the end of British rule private irrigation investment covered nearly 25 million acres of British India. Improvements in shift facilities (particularly railways, but also steamships and the Suez canal) helped agriculture by permitting some degree of specialization on cash crops. This increased yields somewhat, but the bulk of the country stuck to subsistence farming. Plantations were developed for indigo, boodle, jute and tea.These items made a significant contribution to exports, but in the context of Indian agriculture as a whole, they were not very important. In 1946, the two primary staples, tea and jute, were less than 3. 5 per cent of the gross value o f crop output. 34 Thus the enlargement of markets through worldwide trade was less of a stimulus in India than in other Asian countries such as Ceylon, Burma or Thailand (35). Little was done to promote agricultural technology. There was some betterment in seeds, but no extension service, no service in livestock and no official encouragement to use fertilizer.Lord Mayo, the Governor General, said in 1870, I do not know what is precisely meant by ammoniac manure. If it means guano, superphosphate or any other artificial product of that kind, we might as well ask the people of India to manure their ground with champagne (36). Statistics are not available on agricultural output for the first century and a half of British rule, but all the indications suggest that there was substantial growth. We do not know whether output rose faster or more slowly than population, but it seems likely that the movements were roughly parallel.For the last half century of British rule, the main calcul ations of output are those by George Blyn. His first study, which has been wide quoted, was create in 1954 by the National Income Unit of the Indian government and showed only a 3 per cent increase in crop output in British India from 1893 to 1946, i. e. a period in which population increased 46 per cent His second study, published in 1966 showed a 16. 6 per cent increase, and this, too, has been widely quoted, but he also gives a modified series which shows a 28. 9 per cent increase.This seems preferable, as the official figures on rice yields in Orissa, which are correct in his modified estimate, seem obviously in error. However, even Blyns upper estimate is probably an understatement because he shows a very small increase in acreage. It is difficult to believe that per capita food output could have gone down as much as he suggests, whilst waste land remained unused. There has been a very big increase in the cultivated area since independence and it seems likely that the increase in the preceding half century was bigger than Blyn suggests.Therefore, my own estimate of crop output (Appendix B) for 1900-46, uses Blyns figures on yields but exacts that the cultivated area rose by 23 per cent (Sivasubramonians figure) rather than by 12. 2 per cent (Blyns figure) (37). My estimate shows agricultural output rising about the same amount as population from 1900 to 1946. However, even this may be too low. The basic reports on areas under cultivation are those provided by village accountants 11 (patwaris) in areas where land revenue was periodically changed, and by village watchmen (chowkidars) in areas where the land revenue was permanently settled.There was some incentive for farmers to bribe patwaris to under-report land for tax purposes, and chowkidars are all too a great deal illiterate and drowsy people, who would usually report that things were normal, i. e. the same as the year before. There is, therefore, a tendency for under-reporting of both levels and r ates of growth in areas covered by statistics, and the areas not covered by statistics were primarily on the margin of cultivation and may have had a more steeply rising trend than the average area covered.Thus Blyn shows no growth in output in Bengal where the chowkidars did the basic reporting. He did not cover the Sind desert area in which the British reinforced the huge Sukkur barrage in 1932. Blyn was, of course, cognisant of these difficulties and tried to correct for them as far as possible, but the fundamental problems are not amenable to statistical manipulation but require hunch adjustment.My own outcome from the evidence available is that agricultural output per head was at least as high at the end of British rule as it was in the Moghul period, and that rural consumption levels were somewhat higher because of the lower tax burden on agriculture, and the smaller degree of wastage which allowed surplus areas to sell their grains. This slight improvement in standards may have contributed to the expansion in population. However, agricultural yields and nutritional levels at independence were amongst the lowest in the world. Under British rule, the Indian population remained subject to recurrent famines and epidemic diseases.In 1876-8 and 1899-1900 famine killed millions of people. In the 1890s there was a widespread outbreak of bubonic plague and in 1919 a great influenza epidemic. It is sometimes asserted by Indian nationalist historians that British policy increased the incidence of famine in India, particularly in the nineteenth century (38). Unfortunately we do not have any figures on agricultural production for this period, and it is difficult to base a judgement merely on catalogues of famine years whose intensity we cannot measure. As agriculture was extended to more marginal land one would have expected output to become more volatile.But this was offset to a considerable extent by the major improvement in transport brought by railways, and the greater security of water supply brought by irrigation. It is noteworthy that the decades in which famines occurred were ones in which population was static rather than falling. 39 In the 1920s and 1930s there were no famines, and the 1944 famine in Bengal was due to war conditions and transport difficulties rather than crop failure. However, the greater stability after 1920 may have been partly due to a lucky break in the weather cycle40 rather than to a new stability of agriculture.British rule reduced some of the old checks on Indian population growth. The main contribution was the ending of internal warfare and local banditry. There was some reduction in the incidence of famine. The death rate was also reduced to some degree by making ritual suicide and infanticide illegal. The British contributed to public health by introducing smallpox vaccination, establishing Western medicine and training modern doctors, by killing rats, and establishing 12 quarantine procedures. As a re sult, the death rate fell and the population of India grew by 1947 to more than two-and-a-half times its size in 1757.Industry Several Indian authors have argued that British rule led to a de-industrialization of India. R. C. Dutt argued, India in the eighteenth century was a great manufacturing as well as a great agricultural country, and the products of the Indian loom supplied the markets of Asia and Europe. It is, unfortunately, true that the East India Company and the British Parliament, following the selfish commercial policy of a hundred years ago, discouraged Indian manufacturers in the early years of British rule in order to encourage the rising manufactures of England.Their fixed policy, pursued during the last decades of the eighteenth century and the first decades of the nineteenth, was to make India subservient to the industries of Great Britain, and to make the Indian people grow raw produce only, in order to supply material for the looms and manufactories of Great Bri tain (41). R. Palme Dutt, writing forty years later, argued that the process had been continuous the real picture of modern India is a picture of what has been aptly called de-industrializationthat is, the decline of the old handicraft industry without the compensating age of modern industry.The advance of factory industry has not overtaken the decay of handicraft. The process of decay characteristic of the nineteenth century has been carried forward in the twentieth century and in the post-war period (42). Nehru, in his popular history is a conflation of the two Dutts, argued that the British deindustrialized India, and that this is the real the fundamental cause of the appalling poverty of the Indian people, and it is of comparatively recent origin (43).There is a good deal of truth in the deindustrialization argument. Moghul India did have a bigger industry than any other country which became a European colony, and was unique in being an industrial exporter in pre-colonial times . A large part of the Moghul industry was destroyed in the course of British rule. However, it is important to understand precisely how this deindustrialization came about and to try to get some idea of its quantitative significance in different periods.Oversimplified explanations, which exaggerate the role of British commercial policy and ignore the role of changes in demand and technology, have been very common and have had some adverse impact on post-independence economic policy (44). Between 1757 and 1857 the British wiped out the Moghul court, and eliminated threequarters of the warlord aristocracy (all except those in princely states). They also eliminated more than half of the local chiefs (zamindars) and in their place established a bureaucracy with European tastes. The new rulers wore European textilees and shoes, drank import beer, wines and spirits, and used European weapons.Their tastes were copied by the male members of the new Indian middle class which arose to act as their clerks and intermediaries. As a result of these political and social 13 changes, about three-quarters of the domestic demand for luxury handicrafts was destroyed. This was a bust blow to manufacturers of fine muslins, jewellery, luxury clothing and footwear, decorative swords and weapons. It is not known how important these items were in national income, but my own guess would be that the home market for these goods was about 5 per cent of Moghul national income. The export market was probably another 1. per cent of national income, and most of this market was also lost. There was a reduction of European demand because of the change in sartorial tastes after the French revolution, and the greatly reduced price of more ordinary materials because of the revolution of textile technology in England. The second blow to Indian industry came from massive imports of cheap textiles from England after the Napoleonic wars. In the period 1896-1913, imported foot goods supplied about 60 per cent of Indian cloth consumption,45 and the proportion was probably higher for most of the nineteenth century.Home spinning, which was a spare-time activity of village women, was greatly reduced. A large proportion of village hand-loom weavers must have been displaced, though many switched to using factory instead of home-spun narrate. Even as late as 1940 a third of Indian piece goods were produced on hand looms (46). The new manufactured textile goods were considerably cheaper (47) and of better quality than hand-loom products, so their advent increased textile consumption. At the end of British rule, there can be no doubt that cloth consumption per head was substantially larger than in the Moghul period.We do not know how big an increase in textile consumption occurred, but if per capita consumption of cotton cloth doubled (which seems quite plausible), then the displacement effect on hand-loom weavers would have been smaller than at first appears. The hand-loom weavers who produced a third of output in 1940 would have been producing two-thirds if there had been no increase in per capita consumption. In time, India built up her own textile manufacturing industry which displaced British imports. But there was a gap of several decades before manufacturing started and a period of 130 years before British textile imports were eliminated.India could probably have copied Lancashires technology more quickly if she had been allowed to impose a tutelary tariff in the way that was done in the USA and France in the first few decades of the nineteenth century, but the British imposed a policy of free trade. British imports entered India vocation free, and when a small tariff was required for revenue purposes Lancashire pressure led to the imposition of a corresponding excise duty on Indian products to prevent them gaining a competitive advantage. This undoubtedly handicapped industrial development.If India had been politically independent, her tax structure wou ld probably have been different. In the 1880s, Indian customs revenues were only 2. 2 per cent of the trade turnover, i. e. the lowest ratio in any country. In Brazil, by contrast, import duties at that period were 21 per cent of trade turnover. 48 If India had enjoyed protection there is no doubt that its textile industry would have started earlier and grown faster. 14 The first textile mills were started in the 1850s by Indian capitalists who had made their money trading with the British and had acquired some education in English.Cotton textiles were launched in Bombay with financial and managerial help from British trading companies. India was the first country in Asia to have a modern textile industry, preceding Japan by twenty years and China by forty years. Cotton mills were started in Bombay in 1851, and they saturated on coarse yarns sold domestically and to China and Japan yarn exports were about half of output. Modern jute manufacturing started about the same time as cotto n textiles. The first jute mill was built in 1854 and the industry expanded rapidly in the vicinity of Calcutta. The industry was largely in the hands of foreigners ( in the main Scots).Between 1879 and 1913 the number of jute spindles rose tenfold much faster than growth in the cotton textile industry. The jute industry was able to expand faster than cotton textiles because its sales did not depend so heavily on the povertystricken domestic markets. Most of jute output was for export. Coal mining, mainly in Bengal, was another industry which achieved significance. Its output, which by 1914 had reached 15. 7 million tons, largely met the demands of the Indian railways. In 1911 the first Indian steel mill was built by the Tata Company at Jamshedpur in Bihar.However, production did not take place on a significant scale before the First World War. The Indian steel industry started fifteen years later than in China, where the first steel mill was built at Hangyang in 1896. The first Ja panese mill was built in 1898. In both China and Japan the first steel mills (and the first textile mills) were government enterprises. Indian firms in industry, amends and banking were given a boost from 1905 onwards by the swadeshi movement, which was a nationalist boycott of British goods in favour of Indian enterprise.During the First World War, lack of British imports strengthened the hold of Indian firms on the home market for textiles and steel. After the war, under nationalist pressure, the government started to favour Indian enterprise in its purchase of stores and it agreed to create a tariff commission in 1921 which started raising tariffs for protective reasons. By 1925, the average tariff level was 14 per cent49 compared with 5 per cent pre-war. The procedure for fixing tariffs was lengthy and tariff protection was granted more readily to foreign-owned than to Indian firms, but in the 1930s protection was sagaciously increased (50).The government was more willing to protect the textile industry when the threat came from Japan and not the UK. Between 1930 and 1934 the tariff on cotton cloth was raised from 11 to 50 per cent, although British imports were accorded a margin of preference. As a result of these measures, there was considerable substitution of local textiles for imports. In 1896, Indian mills supplied only 8 per cent of total cloth consumption in 1913, 20 per cent in 1936, 62 per cent and in 1945, 76 per cent (51). By the latter date there were no imports of piece goods. 15Until the end of the Napoleonic wars, cotton manufactures had been Indias main export. They reached their peak in 1798, and in 1813 they still amounted to ? 2 million, but thereafter they fell rapidly (52). Thirty years later, half of Indian imports were cotton textiles from Manchester. This collapse in Indias main export caused a problem for the Company, which had to find ways to convert its rupee revenue into resources transferable to the UK. The Company therefor e promoted exports of raw materials on a larger scale, including sugar, silk, saltpetre and indigo, and greatly increased exports of opium which were traded against Chinese tea.These dopepeddling efforts provoked the Anglo-Chinese war of 1842, after which access to the Chinese market was greatly widened. By the middle of the nineteenth century opium was by far the biggest export of India, and remained in this position until the 1880s when its relative and absolute importance began to decline. Another new export was raw cotton, which could not compete very well in European markets against higher quality American and Egyptian cottons, (except during the US Civil War), but found a market in Japan and China.Sugar exports were built up after 1833 when the abolition of slavery raised West Indian production costs, but India had no long-run comparative advantage in sugar exports. Indigo (used to dye textiles) was an important export until the 1890s when it was hit by competition from German synthetic dyes. The jute industry boomed from the time of the Crimean War onwards, when the UK stopped importation flax from Russia. In addition to raw jute (shipped for manufacture in Dundee) India exported jute manufactures. Grain exports were also built up on a sizeable scale, mainly from the newly irrigated area of the Punjab.The tea industry was introduced to India from China and built up on a plantation basis. Tea exports became important from the 1860s onwards. Hides and skins and oil cake (used as animal rust and fertilizer) were also important raw material exports. Table 3-1 Level of Asian Exports f. o. b. 1850-1950 (million dollars) 1850 1913 1937 1950 Ceylon 5 76 124 328 China 24 294 516 (700) India 89 786 717 1,178 Indonesia 24 270 550 800 Japan 1 354 1,207 820 Malaya 24 193 522 1,312 Philippines n. a. 48 153 331 Thailand 3 43 76 304 Figures refer to customs area of the year concerned.In 1850 and 1913 the Indian area included Burma. The comparability of 1937 and 1950 figures is affected by the separation of Pakistan. Manufactured textile exports form India began to increase in the 1850s when the first modern mills were established. The bulk of exports were yarn and crude piece goods which were sold in China and Japan. As the Chinese and Japanese were prevented by colonial-type treaties from 16 imposing tariffs for manufactured imports they were wide open to Indian goods, and particularly cotton textiles and yarn.Indian jute manufactures were exported mainly to Europe and the USA However, India began to suffer from Japanese competition in the 1890s. Indian yarn exports to Japan dropped sharply from 8,400 tons in 1890 to practically nothing in 1898, and India also suffered from Japanese competition in China. The Japanese set up factories in China after the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-5. Before this, India had supplied 96 per cent of Chinese yarn imports, the UK 4 per cent, and Japan none. Within three years the Japanese were supplying a quarter to Chinese imports, and by 1914 India was exporting less yarn to China than was Japan.During the First World War Japan made further progress in the Chinese market and by 1924 supplied threequarters of Chinese imports. By 1928 India was exporting only 3 per cent of her yarn output. By the end of the 1930s, Indian exports of yarn to China and Japan had disappeared, piece goods exports had fallen off, and India imported both yarn and piece goods from China and Japan. Indian exports grew fairly rapidly in the period up to 1913, but their growth was slower than that of most other Asian countries which had a cancel resource endowment offering greater opportunities for trade.As a consequence, in 1913, India had a smaller trade per head than most countries except China. Nevertheless, exports were 10. 7 per cent of national income, probably a higher ratio than has been reached before or since. Until 1898 India, like most Asian countries, was on the silver standard. In the 1870s the price of sil ver began to fall and the rupee depreciated against sterling. This led to some rise in the internal price level, but it helped to make Indian exports more competitive with those of the UK, e. g. in the Chinese textile market.In 1898, India adopted a gold rallying standard which tied the rupee to sterling at a fixed value of 15 to 1. This weakened her battle vis-a-vis China which remained on a depreciating silver standard, but its potential adverse effects were mitigated because Japan went on to the gold exchange standard at the same time. During the First World War, when the sterling exchange rate was allowed to float, the rupee appreciated. Unfortunately, when sterling resumed a fixed (and overvalued) parity in 1925, the rupee exchange rate was fixed above the pre-war level.This overvaluation eased the fiscal problems of government in making transfers to the UK and enabled British residents in India, or those on Indian pensions in the UK, to get more sterling for their rupees, but it made it necessary for domestic economic policy to be deflationary (in cutting wages) and greatly hindered Indian exports, particularly those to or competing with China and Japan. As a result, Indian exports fell from 1913 to 1937, a poorer performance than that of almost any other country.At independence exports were less than 5 per cent of national income. If we look at Indian export performance from 1850 to 1950 it was worse than that of any other country 17 in Asia (see Table 3-1). The Second World War gave a fillip to Indian industrial output, but there was not much increase in capacity because of the difficulty of importing capital goods and the lack of a domestic capital goods industry. Many of the most lucrative commercial, financial, business and plantation jobs in the modern sector were occupied by foreigners.Although the East India Companys legally enforced monopoly privileges were ended in 1833, the British continued to exercise effective dominance through the system of managing agencies. These agencies, originally set up by former employees of the East India Company, were used both to manage industrial enterprise and to handle most of Indias international trade. They were closely linked with British banks, redress and shipping companies. Managing agencies had a quasi-monopoly in access to capital, and they had interlocking directorships which gave them control over supplies and markets (53).They dominated the foreign markets in Asia. They had better access to government officials than did Indians. The agencies were in many ways able to take decisions favourable to their own interests rather than those of shareholders. They were paid commissions based on gross profits or total sales and were often agents for the raw materials used by the companies they managed. Thus the Indian capitalists who did emerge were highly dependent on British commercial capital and many sectors of industry were dominated by British firms, e. . shipping, banking, insur ance, coal, plantation crops and jute. Indian industrial efficiency was hampered by the British administrations neglect of technical education, and the reluctance of British firms and managing agencies to provide training of managerial experience to Indians. Even in the Bombay textile industry, where most of the capital was Indian, 28 per cent of the managerial and supervisory staff were British in 1925 (42 per cent in 1895) and the British component was even bigger in more complex industries.This naturally raised Indian production costs (54). At lower levels there was widespread use of jobbers for hiring workers and maintaining discipline, and workers themselves were a completely unskilled group who had to bribe the jobbers to get and retain their jobs. There were also problems of race, language and caste distinctions between management, supervisors and workers (55). The small size and very diversified output of the enterprises hindered efficiency.It is partly for these reasons (an d the overvaluation of the currency) that Indian exports had difficulty in competing with Japan. The basic limitations on the growth of industrial output were the innate poverty of the rural population, and the fact that a large proportion of the elite had a taste for imported goods or exported their purchasing power. The government eventually provided tariff protection but did not itself create industrial plants, sponsor development banks, or give preference to local industry in allotting contracts.The banking system gave little help to industry and technical education was poor. Most of these things changed when India became independent except the first and most important, i. e. the extreme poverty of the rural population which limited the expansion of the 18 market for industrial goods. By the time of independence, large-scale factory industry in India employed less than 3 million people as compared with 12 1/4 million in small-scale industry and handicrafts, and a labour force o f 160 million. 6 This may appear meagre, but Indias per capita industrial output at independence was higher than elsewhere in Asia outside Japan, and more than half of Indias exports were manufactures. British policy was less repressive to local industry than that of other colonial power, and had permitted the emergence of a small but powerful class of Indian entrepreneurs. It should be noted, however, that modern industry was heavily concentrated in Calcutta, Bombay and Ahmedabad. The area which was to become Pakistan had practically no industry at all.Table 3-2 Industrial Growth in the Last Half Century of British Rule Small-scale enterprise Employment Value added (thousands) (million 1938 rupees) 1900/1901 13,308 2,296 1945/1946 12,074 2,083 Factory establishments Employment Value added (thousands) (million 1938 rupees) 601 379 2,983 2,461 Source S. Sivasubramonian, op. cit. , for employment and value added in factories. For small-scale enterprise I assume value added to move pro portionately to employment. In the last half century of British rule the output of factory industry rose about six-fold (about 4. per cent a year) whereas the output of small-scale industry declined. Their joint output rose about two-thirds (1. 2 per cent a year), and per head of population, joint output was rising by 0. 4 per cent a year. We know that output in the modern factory sector was zero in 1850, and if we assume that small enterprise output grew parallel with population from 1850 to 1900, then total industrial output would have grown by 0. 8 per cent a year in this period, or about 0. 3 per cent a year per head of population. Some increase seems plausible in this period of railway development and expanding international trade.It therefore seems possible that in the last century of British rule, per capita output of industrial goods rose by a third. But in the first century of British rule, i. e. 17571857, it seems certain that industrial output fell per head of population because (a) the home and domestic market for luxury goods was cut so drastically (b) the home market for yarn and cheap cloth was invaded by foreign competition. Over the whole period of British rule it therefore seems likely that industrial output per head of the population was not significantly changed.The Economic Burden of Foreign Rule The major burden of foreign rule arose from the fact that the British raj was a regime of expatriates. Under an Indian administration, income from government service would have accrued to the local inhabitants and not to foreigners. The diversion of upper-class income into the hands of foreigners 19 inhibited the development of local industry because it put purchasing power into the hands of people with a taste for foreign goods. This increased imports and was particularly damaging to the luxury handicraft industries.Another important effect of foreign rule on the long-run growth potential of the economy was the fact that a large part of its poten tial savings were siphoned abroad. This drain of funds from India to the UK has been a point of major controversy between Indian nationalist historians and defenders of the British raj. However, the only real grounds for controversy are statistical. There can be no denial that there was a substantial outflow which lasted for 190 years. If these funds had been invested in India they could have made a significant contribution to raising income levels.The first generation of British rulers was rapacious. Clive took quarter of a million pounds